I finally finished Asimov’s New Guide to Science, a heavy tome that I started about a year ago. If Bryson’s science book (A Short History of Nearly Everything) is too light, short, and anecdotal, Asimov’s is too heavy, long, and technical (not to mention that Asimov’s book is somewhat dated). So I can’t recommend Asimov’s book enthusiastically.

According to Asimov,

Nature did not design the brain; it came about as the result of a long series of evolutionary accidents, so to speak, which happened to produce helpful features that at each stage gave an advantage to organisms possessing them.1

Is evolution accidental? Or is there some force behind it — a life-instinct (to use Freud’s term), or synchronicity (to use Jung’s term)? In my view, Asimov’s argument that the brain is accidental is hard to swallow, and since we see the life-instinct in action elsewhere, and since we see synchronicity elsewhere, why not consider these forces as possible factors in evolution?

Asimov has a good sense of history, and since the past is embedded in words, Asimov is interested in etymology. He reminds us that “digit,” which is commonly used to mean “number,” originally meant “finger” (since fingers were used for counting). And he tells us that “calculate” comes from the Latin word for “pebble” (since pebbles were used to calculate). Pebbles (or beads) could be manipulated more easily if they were strung on a thread or rod, hence the abacus was invented.

Asimov tells us that the word “assassin” comes from “hashishin” meaning “user of hashish” because the original assassins were a Muslim cult who used marijuana.

I discovered a psychologist named Hans Eysenck. Eysenck left Nazi Germany at a young age, and settled in England, where he held an academic position for many years. He developed a theory of personality that is akin to the ancient theory of choleric, melancholic, sanguine, and phlegmatic personalities. His theory of personality has two dimensions, extraversion and neuroticism. The choleric personality, according to Eysenck, has high extraversion and high neuroticism, the melancholic personality has low extraversion and high neuroticism, the sanguine personality has high extraversion and low neuroticism, and the phlegmatic personality has low extraversion and low neuroticism.

Eysenck’s views on race and intelligence were controversial, and he defended a controversial book called The Bell Curve. Like many modern psychologists, Eysenck was fond of statistics, experiments, and scientific methodology; he was critical of Freud’s approach. “Despite this strongly scientific interest, Eysenck did not shy, in later work, from giving attention to parapsychology and astrology. Indeed, he believed that empirical evidence supported the existence of paranormal abilities.”2 He wrote dozens of books, including Know Your Own I.Q., Know Your Own Psi-Q, Crime and Personality, and Psychology is about People.

I recently read Malcolm Gladwell’s bestseller, The Tipping Point. I didn’t like it as much as Gladwell’s Blink. It discusses marketing, fads, epidemics, and doesn’t say much about human nature; it doesn’t have as much philosophical import as Blink. Nonetheless, Tipping Point is clear, readable, and sometimes interesting, so I don’t regret reading it.

In earlier issues of this e-zine, I’ve often discussed thinkers like James Allen, who believe that our mind, our attitude, molds our circumstances. Gladwell argues the opposite — that our environment molds our mind, “our inner states are the result of our outer circumstances.”3 Gladwell calls this the Power of Context.

He discusses the Broken Windows Theory, which says that criminals are influenced by little things in their environment, such as broken windows, and if you clean up these little things, you can reduce the crime rate.4 Gladwell also discusses Emotional Contagion, that is, the way a person can transmit his emotions to those around him; our facial expression isn’t simply the result of our inner state, it’s molded by the people around us. “Emotion... goes outside-in.”5 Gladwell discusses an experiment at Stanford in which a mock prison was created, to see how people responded to such an environment.6 The guards became sadistic, the prisoners went crazy, and the experiment had to be aborted. All these studies emphasize the Power of Context, the power of circumstances to mold the mind.

As he reviews the findings of contemporary psychologists, Gladwell sometimes discusses an idea that is familiar to me from my study of the classics. For example, Gladwell argues that we don’t have one personality, rather we have a multitude of personalities that emerge in different situations. He discusses a study of 11,000 schoolchildren. The study concluded that students were honest in one situation, dishonest in another; “A child may cheat on an arithmetic test and not on a spelling test.”7 Proust made the same point:

There was not a single one of the people whom he knew who might not, in certain circumstances, prove capable of a shameful action.... Each one of us is not a single person, but contains many persons who have not all the same moral value... If a vicious Albertine had existed, it did not mean that there had not been others.8

Gladwell discusses an anthropologist named Robin Dunbar. Dunbar argues that “brains evolve, they get bigger, in order to handle the complexities of larger social groups.”9 The human brain is big enough to handle a social group of 150, which Gladwell calls “the magic number.” Primitive man often lived in groups of about 150 people, and soldiers are usually grouped into units of 150. Above this magic number, people become strangers, and the group starts to fragment into sub-groups. 150 is the “tipping point.”

In Chapter 7, Gladwell compares the epidemic of teenage smoking in the U.S. to the epidemic of teenage suicide in Micronesia. In both cases, destructive behavior was regarded as “cool,” and spread through the society like a contagious disease. Gladwell begins his argument by saying that, in any society, committing suicide inspires others to commit suicide. (One thinks of the recent spate of suicides at Cornell.) Gladwell says that “Marilyn Monroe’s death [probably a suicide] was followed by a temporary 12 percent increase in the national suicide rate.”10 When a suicide is on the front page of the newspaper, the suicide rate spikes, and so does the rate of fatal car accidents.

Gladwell credits Hans Eysenck with a “groundbreaking” work on smoking, a work that connects smoking to a certain type of personality. The hard-core smoker

is sociable, likes parties, has many friends, needs to have people to talk to.... He craves excitement, takes chances, acts on the spur of the moment and is generally an impulsive individual.11

In a teenager’s eyes, smoking is cool because the people who smoke are cool — the defiant, impulsive, risk-taking teenagers who smoke are cool.

Over the past decade, the anti-smoking movement has railed against the tobacco companies for making smoking cool and has spent untold millions of dollars of public money trying to convince teenagers that smoking isn’t cool. But that’s not the point. Smoking was never cool. Smokers are cool.... In this epidemic, as in all others, a very small group — a select few — are responsible for driving the epidemic forward.12

I think there’s much truth in Gladwell’s argument, but he doesn’t ask, “Is suicide merely contagious, or is there another factor?” Gorky consorted with radical students, and said, “how many of the people I have known have abandoned life of their own choice!”13 Is this an epidemic? Perhaps, but it’s also, in my view, a reflection of nihilism, of the breakdown of traditional religion, traditional values.

Likewise, the suicide epidemic in Micronesia isn’t just a matter of contagion, there are probably other factors involved. Contagion can happen anywhere, anytime. Why Micronesia? Why now? There may be some sort of nihilism in modern Micronesia, some sort of spiritual breakdown. Perhaps modern media have introduced Micronesians to the world outside, and they feel cut off, left out. Perhaps they can’t find satisfaction in simple things, as their ancestors could.

I discovered a young Swedish writer, Johan Norberg, a champion of free markets, globalization, Ayn Rand, etc. He’s affiliated with The Cato Institute, a think-tank that promotes libertarian ideas. Norberg writes good English prose. He’s the author of In Defense of Global Capitalism and Financial Fiasco: How America’s Infatuations with Homeownership and Easy Money Created the Economic Crisis. Both these books have been made into films.14 Norberg admires reason and scorns mysticism and religion. He’s fond of Star Trek and science fiction; one of his favorite novels is The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, by Robert Heinlein.

I recently received an e-mail on the subject of enantiodromia (running toward the opposite, as in Hegel’s dialectic):

Regarding enantiodromia, even though writers define it as a cyclical phenomenon, neither Jung nor Marx viewed it this way, so far as I can tell. I never read anything in Jung suggesting that an excess of the unconscious led to an outbreak of conscious thought. And in Marx’s dialectical materialism, I don’t recall him predicting that the dictatorship of the proletariat would collapse of its own internal contradictions (although in fact that’s what transpired). I found you by googling “enantiodromia” upon reading the recently-published “Red Book” of Jung.

I responded thus:

If I may differ with your view, you say “writers define it as a cyclical phenomenon,” but it seems to me that enantiodromia means “running toward the opposite,” it doesn’t mean “running in a circle.” In some cases, a complete circle may be made, but I don’t think we need a complete circle in order to use the term enantiodromia. My theory of history is a complete circle, often needing 400 years to complete. But you’re right, Marx probably didn’t speak of a complete circle, or he would have weakened his argument (he preferred to say that history would move to the Communist nirvana, and then stop). As for Jung, I think he and his disciples argue that an excess of super-ego (conscience) can trigger a revolt by the unconscious (in dreams, FreudianSlips, etc., etc.). They also say that an excess of shadow/vice/evil (for example, a murderer) can trigger dreams/images of virtue, holiness, etc. They base this argument on an analysis of the dreams of criminals. They also base this argument on the case of the Roman emperors (Nero, Caligula, etc.) who exemplify an excess of shadow/vice/evil. Jung argues that this excess of shadow/vice/evil was not unique to the individual emperors, but rather was characteristic of their society. It gave rise to its opposite, namely an excess of conscience/virtue. Jung wrote thus: “Humanity does not thrive in a state of licentiousness. The meaning of these cults — Christianity and Mithraism — is clear: moral subjugation of the animal instincts.... We can hardly realize the whirlwinds of brutality and unchained libido that roared through the streets of Imperial Rome.”15 We find a similar argument in Kierkegaard, who analyzed the Roman emperors and said that their licentiousness triggered “dread”: “The spirit wills to break through, wills that he shall possess himself in his consciousness, but that he is unable to do, and the spirit is repressed and gathers new wrath.”16 The spirit/conscience can be repressed, just as the unconscious/id can be repressed, and in both cases the result is the activation of what is repressed.

We’re curious about the far-away, and overlook what’s under our nose. Though I’ve lived in the Providence area for 15 years, I haven’t explored Providence much. Finally I took a walking tour of Providence, organized by the Rhode Island Historical Society. It was a good tour; I recommend that you contact the Society if you want to explore Providence.

Our guide said that, like Boston, Providence was a port city, with access to the sea and to rivers. Like Boston, Providence had low-lying, swampy areas where you couldn’t construct a big building without paying special attention to the foundation.

Perhaps my favorite places to walk in the Providence area are Caratunk (an Audubon refuge) and Swan Point Cemetery, which has a trail along the river. (In 1848, Poe proposed marriage to Sarah Helen Whitman in Swan Point Cemetery.)

The New York Times website has a good piece on Providence. The National Park Service has a pamphlet about a walking tour of Providence churches, most of which are east of the downtown area. Also of interest is the website of the Providence Preservation Society, a website that discusses a walking tour of Providence, and another website about a walking tour.

And don’t forget Newport, which is an hour south of Providence. Newport is known for its Gilded Age mansions, its colonial-era streets, its beaches, its Cliff Walk, its old synagogue, and its religious toleration, which made it a haven for Quakers, Jews, etc. Click here for information about guided tours of Newport.

Like Newport, Providence was a haven for dissenters, a haven for those who clashed with the Massachusetts Bay establishment. Providence was founded in 1636 by a dissenter, Roger Williams, who got along well with the Indians. In 1642, a settlement on the west side of Narragansett Bay, in what is now Warwick, was started. The Boston authorities were angry, believing that these heretics were occupying their land. So they sent an armed force from Boston to arrest them. Most of the Warwick men were sentenced to hard labor, with iron balls on their limbs (they were released after four months). Their houses were burned “and their women and children forced to flee in canoes to the neighboring islands for safety.”16B This episode shows how intent the Boston authorities were on stamping out dissent and “heresy.” The early history of New England contains numerous episodes in which freedom of religion wasn’t allowed.

Like Providence and Newport, Nantucket was a haven for dissenters. Some of Nantucket’s earliest settlers were Quakers, or people accused of harboring Quakers. (John Greenleaf Whittier wrote a poem about Nantucket settlers called “The Exiles.”) One might say that, in general, people who ran afoul of the Boston authorities took refuge in peripheral areas.

“Why is Rhode Island called ‘Rhode Island’? After all, it isn’t an island, is it?” Rhode Island was originally the name given to Aquidneck Island, the largest island in Narragansett Bay. Aquidneck Island was the location of some of the state’s earliest settlements, and is now the location of Newport, Middletown, and Portsmouth. If you drive to Aquidneck Island from the west, you go over a major bridge, the Newport Bridge, but if you drive from the east, you go over a small bridge, since the island is close to the mainland; approaching the island from the east, you may not feel that you’re on an island. Another early settlement in Rhode Island was at Providence. So the state was originally called “Rhode Island and Providence Plantations,” and that’s still the official name.

Newport was a flourishing commercial hub in the 1700’s, but was occupied by the British during the American Revolution, halting trade and causing economic decline. One reason for its prosperity was that it had Jews from Spain/Portugal, such as Aaron Lopez, who had business contacts around the world. Lopez was by far the wealthiest person in Newport, and one of the most successful merchants in the American colonies.

An hour northeast of Providence is Hingham, Massachusetts, which has a 250-acre park, World’s End, projecting into Massachusetts Bay, offering good views of Boston to the northwest. World’s End is owned by the Trustees of Reservations. Their website describes World’s End thus: “Rolling hills and rocky shorelines offer sweeping views of the Boston skyline, while tree-lined carriage paths designed by famed landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted make delightful walking trails.”

According to Wikipedia, “[Hingham] boasts a wide assortment of eighteenth-century and nineteenth-century homes. Many of these may be found in the six historic districts set aside by the town of Hingham.... Hingham is home to the United States’ oldest continuously used house of worship, the Old Ship Church, built in 1681.” One of Hingham’s eighteenth-century homes is the Samuel Lincoln House, named after the ancestor of Abraham Lincoln. Click here for a list of historic houses in Massachusetts, here for a list of historic Rhode Island houses.

About 15 miles west of Hingham is the 7,000-acre Blue Hills Reservation. If you park at the Audubon Society’s Trailside Museum, you’ll find a short trail to Eliot Tower, which offers a good view of the Boston skyline, and the surrounding area.

There are several bike-paths near Providence. Perhaps the longest and most interesting is the EastBay BikePath, which runs along the east side of Narragansett Bay, from East Providence to Bristol; it’s about 14 miles long. It is said to be the 5th busiest bike-path in the country.

The BlackstoneRiver BikePath runs from Lincoln, Rhode Island to Woonsocket, a distance of 10 miles; eventually it will go to Worcester. Much of it runs along the Blackstone River and the nearby canal; a museum called Kelly House discusses the history of the river, the canal, the railroads, etc.

You can also ride on a riverboat: “Spring and summer cruises depart from Central Falls and tour the Valley Falls ‘Wilderness Area’. Autumn cruises depart near the Museum of Work & Culture in Woonsocket and tour from the ‘Thundermist’ dam north.” The riverboat has a guide who can teach you much about the river — its ecology, its history, etc. The National Park Service is a good resource for exploring the Blackstone Valley.

The Woonasquatucket River BikePath is west of Providence, and is about 3 miles long, but there are plans to extend it for another 3 miles to the north. The Woonasquatucket River flows into Providence, under the ProvidencePlace Mall, through Waterplace Park, and meets the Moshassuck River to form the Providence River.

The Ten Mile River BikePath runs for 2-3 miles along the Ten Mile River and the Turner Reservoir, from Slater Park in Pawtucket to East Providence. There are plans to extend it another mile northward. It’s quite scenic, and quite popular.

The Cranston-Coventry BikePath starts in Cranston and runs south into Warwick and WestWarwick, before heading west into Coventry; it’s 15 miles long, but 1.5 miles in east Coventry isn’t completed yet; eventually it will extend to Connecticut.17 The SouthCounty BikePath is about 6 miles long.18

For more info on Rhode Island bike-paths, click here.

Bike New York is an organization that arranges bike trips in New York State, including an annual ride around New York City, a tour of LongIsland harbors, and a tour of the Harlem Valley.19 Click here for information about cycling along the Erie Canal. Click here for information about cycling all over the U.S.

Finally, I’d like to mention an interesting article about a driving tour of Quebec and the St. Lawrence River, and a website that lists “America’s Top 10 Road Trips.”

© L. James Hammond 2010
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